A
absorption. See radiation
Advanced Circulation Ocean Model (ADCIRC), 325, 511, 512
aerodynamic flux formulae, 43, 67, 74, 81, 119, 120, 158, 165, 173, 179, 193, 196, 219, 337, 338, 357, 381, 383, 395, 412, 535, 561, 562, 571, 596
aerosols: effect on cloud physics, 47, 74; effect on tropical cyclone activity, 607–611, 628; effects on radiative transfer, 7, 8, 11, 45, 74, 115, 116
African easterly vortices (AEVs), 275
African easterly waves (AEWs). See easterly waves, African
agradient wind, 399, 406–407
agradient winds in tropical cyclones, 399, 406–407
agukabams, 2, 289, 290, 293–295, 309, 310, 528, 530, 533
air-sea interface, 2, 337, 378, 513–519
airborne Doppler radar, 315, 439, 440, 474
albedo, 7, 21, 114, 116, 123, 128–130, 172, 173, 175
angular velocity in tropical cyclones, 322, 372–378, 400, 402, 406, 408, 433–435
annual cycle, 167, 177, 236, 241, 602, 603, 629. (See also seasonal cycle)
anvil clouds, 45, 65, 71, 74, 101, 440, 608
aquaplanet, 152, 163, 164, 189, 198, 199, 240, 241, 244, 245, 248, 250, 258, 570, 571, 605, 636, 637, 640, 653.
ARGO floats, 134, 135
axisymmeterization of tropical cyclones, 2, 455–456, 470
Azores high, 264, 608

B
balance, concept of, 1, 6; geostrophic (See geostrophic balance); gradient (See gradient balance); hydrostatic (See hydrostatic balance); nonlinear (See nonlinear balance)
baroclinic instability, 131, 138, 241, 267, 271–273, 284, 303, 342, 388, 394, 396, 443, 445, 448, 450, 451, 458, 463, 492, 570, 625
bathymetry, 2, 534
beach deposits, 588–590, 627
Bénard, Henri, 560
Bergeron-Findeisen process. See Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process
Bergeron, Tor, 47, 550, 586
Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship, 291, 299, 419, 482, 483, 530, 538, 556–558, 574, 593–594, 605–606, 619–620
beta drift, 179, 188, 486
beta gyres, 470
Bjerknes, Jacob, 189, 225
blackbody radiation. See radiation, blackbody
blue holes, 588
Boltzmann constant. See Stefan-Boltzmann constant
boundary layer clouds, 65, 71, 116
boundary layer quasi-equilibrium, 87, 88, 95, 96, 111, 112, 130, 139, 153, 217, 218, 369, 463, 475
boundary layers, 115–130; in tropical cyclones, 378–391; slab, 381–383
Boussinesq approximation, 26–28, 35, 36, 108, 379, 520, 560
bubbles, role in air-sea transfer, 337, 378, 513, 514, 534
bulk precipitation efficiency. See precipitation efficiency
buoyancy diagram, 59, 62, 64
buoyancy entropy, 58
buoyancy flux, 26, 27, 30, 31, 35, 120–122, 125, 126, 336, 451
buoyancy frequency, 348, 349, 420, 444, 448, 487, 520
buoyancy matrix. See buoyancy diagram
buoyancy potential temperature, 58–61

C
CAPE. See convective available potential energy
carbon dioxide, 11, 13, 14, 20, 609, 611
carbon monoxide, 11
Carnot cycle, 1, 330–338, 345, 387, 388, 532, 533, 566, 567, 570, 594; differential, 333–336, 345, 387, 594
Carnot engines. See Carnot cycle
characteristic surfaces, 342–346, 486, 488
Charney problem of baroclinic instability, 271–273, 446–447
Charney-Stern Theorem, 189, 267–273, 447–448
Charnock length, 508, 513, 517
CIN. See convective inhibition
Clausius-Clapeyron equation, 22, 34, 37, 70, 82, 193, 350, 525, 570
climate, 1–2, 19, 33, 72, 94, 104, 112, 116, 123, 241, 298, 533, 554–556, 559, 571, 573, 578; effect of tropical cyclones on, 623–627, 629, 630; effects on tropical cyclones, 581–623, 627–630
Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP), 240, 612, 618, 622, 623, 628
closure problem, 69, 383
cloud clusters, 1, 42, 112, 129, 537, 539, 541, 544–546, 549, 550, 552–554
cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). See condensation nuclei
cloud drop sizes, 47, 48
cloud microphysics. See microphysics
cloud optical properties. See clouds, effects on radiative transfer
cloud top entrainment instability, 123–124, 127
cloud-permitting numerical simulations, 97–100, 103, 110, 547, 624
cloud-radiation feedback, 42, 184, 187, 188, 198, 255–260, 285, 550, 552, 605, 608; effect on tropical cyclogenesis, 550–552, 605, 608; role in cloud clusters, 42, 104–107; role in the Madden-Julian Oscillation, 255–260, 285
clouds, effect on radiative transfer, 1, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 21, 33, 39, 41, 65, 68
clusters. See cloud clusters
cold pools, 48–51, 108–111, 128, 415, 458, 601, 608
column moist static energy, 97, 99.277, 249–251, 255–258, 552; variance of, 97, 99–101
column relative humidity, 91–94, 107, 616
concentric eyewalls, 310, 323, 413, 422
condensate, 33, 37, 74, 413
condensation, 33, 34, 37, 41, 42, 47, 58, 60.104, 115, 119, 125, 363, 441, 546, 622 (See also nucleation)
condensation nuclei, 47, 608
convection, deep, 6, 21, 49, 51, 83, 85–87, 90–94, 100, 104–116, 128–130, 152–157, 162, 179, 188, 193–196, 211, 218, 233, 247, 307, 310, 342, 362–370, 415, 448, 454–456, 462, 463, 475–480, 544, 547, 552–554, 580, 982; dry, 22, 29, 33, 37, 42, 45, 64–68, 72–77, 107, 111, 125, 240, 388, 598; moist, 1, 5, 6, 20, 33–42, 45–113, 120, 127, 162, 166, 189, 218, 240, 256, 284–289, 307, 330, 339–341, 365, 366, 372, 388, 413–422, 462, 473–475, 491, 541, 546, 550–552, 605, 618; shallow, 5, 45–53, 85, 310, 366, 439, 547, 552
convective adjustment, dry, 30–32; moist, 68, 69, 71, 78
convective available potential energy (CAPE), 6, 59–64, 69, 71, 96, 111, 260, 415–417, 550, 554
convective clouds. See convection
convective criticality, 6, 68–69
convective inhibition (CIN), 6, 59–64, 111, 260, 415, 416, 417, 550, 575
convective mass flux, 39, 40, 46, 65–71, 74, 77, 78, 85, 88–96, 104, 105, 112, 113, 127, 154–157, 195–197, 216–218, 285, 369–373, 475, 476, 484, 544, 554, 567, 568
convective parameterization. See parameterization, of convection
cumulonimbus, 33, 45, 49–53, 71, 310, 547, 550, 608
cumulus, congestus, 51, 53, 93, 552; size distribution of; trade, 93, 116, 123, 127–130 (See also convection, shallow)
cyclone phase space, 303, 306

D
decay of tropical cyclones. See tropical cyclones, decay of
deformation radius, 84, 86, 95, 96, 207, 210, 241, 447, 467, 476–478, 520, 570
delayed oscillator, 227
density currents, 49, 108, 128, 439
density temperature, 56–63, 84–88, 123, 127, 216, 462, 550
detrainment, 40, 67, 76–78, 127, 546, 547, 572
dew point temperature, 56, 57, 390
diabatic processes, 5, 6, 100, 101, 179, 275, 284, 448, 488, 489, 565
diffusion, molecular, 25–27, 36, 117, 384; turbulent, 69, 317, 412, 422
dissipation: boundary layer, 2, 330–336, 338, 357, 358, 394, 448, 452, 453, 458, 480, 502, 565–567, 570, 594; outflow layer, 335, 336, 354, 502
dissipation of tropical cyclones. See tropical cyclones, decay of
dissipative structures, 329–330
diurnal cycle, of convection, 8, 52, 95–96, 112, 130, 541; of solar radiation, 95, 112, 114, 486, 530, 532
Doppler broadening, 11–12
Doppler on Wheels (DOW), 426–427, 435, 436
Doppler radar: airborne, 297, 310, 315, 413–414, 433, 439–440, 474
downdrafts, 28, 40, 45, 48–51, 65–67, 71, 74, 77–78, 87–89, 100, 109–113, 125, 216, 247, 322, 346, 358, 388, 396, 413–416, 422, 427, 433, 440, 463, 473, 479, 481, 483, 484, 502, 546, 548, 552–554, 561
downscaling of tropical cyclones, 308, 619–623, 629
drag coefficient, 120, 158, 193, 259, 337, 353, 357, 363, 365, 382–384, 419–423, 451, 510, 518–519, 532–534, 566–567, 576, 597
drizzle, role in cloud-topped bounary layers, 123, 125
dropsondes, 297, 316, 323, 390, 439, 474, 519, 544
dry adiabatic adjustment. See convective adjustment,dry
dust devils, 289, 535–536

E
Eady edge waves, 189, 272–274, 278–279, 284, 446–451, 458–459, 491–493
Eady model (of baroclinic instability), 342, 394–398, 449, 491
easterly waves, African (AEWs), 1, 229, 261–276, 284, 488, 537, 539, 545.587, 559, 573–574.631; eastern North Pacific, 276–284
effective emission temperature, 14–17
Ekman layer instabilities, 437–441
Ekman layers, 165, 317, 372, 373, 378, 382, 437–438
Ekman pumping, suction, 362, 365, 416–417, 485, 523
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 198, 201–228, 229; effects on tropical cyclones, 556–557, 573, 581–586, 593, 601, 602, 627, 630
electromagnetic radiation. See radiation
elevated surfaces, role in monsoons, 173
emission. See radiative transfer
emission coefficient, 8
emissivity, 14–19, 43
emulsions, 337–338, 378, 513
ENSO. See El Niño-Southern Oscillation
enthalpy, definition, 23; flux, 2, 8, 33, 64–68, 72–74, 81, 84–87, 91–96, 99–101, 111, 112, 139, 143, 153–157, 166, 183, 189, 192–193, 196, 198, 217–219, 223, 244–250, 255–260, 303, 309, 322, 327, 330, 337, 344, 356, 359, 365, 387–388, 397, 405, 417–418, 422, 451–454, 475–476, 481, 490, 495, 497, 514–516, 530, 533–535, 546–553, 564–565, 570–571, 596–597
enthalpy exchange coefficient, 10, 353, 399, 518–519, 535–536, 576, 596
entraining plume model, 47, 56–57, 61, 63, 71
entrainment, into boundary layers, 112, 120–127, 522, 571–572, 596; into convective clouds, 45–47, 54, 57, 67, 71, 77–78
entrainment parameter, 47
entrainment velocity, 121–124
entrainment zone, 121–122
entropy production, irreversible, 1, 46, 331–332, 550, 565
equatorial waves, 225, 229–260, 286, 289, 427, 441, 458, 586
equatorial β-plane, 206, 211, 212, 215, 221, 255, 284, 443
equivalent potential temperature, 37, 58, 59, 77, 123–126, 128, 175–176, 252, 315–318, 462, 555
Ertel's potential vorticity. See potential vorticity
evaporation, from the surface, 67, 75, 76, 172, 173, 359; of precipitation, 34, 41, 45, 47, 54, 74–78, 111, 317, 376, 388, 413, 547
evapotranspiration, 7–8
exchange coefficients, 68, 120, 196, 219, 338–339, 353–354, 360, 365, 368, 396, 399, 420, 516–519, 535–536, 576, 596
extratropical transition, 294, 305, 309, 328, 489–497, 502
eyes, of tropical cyclones, 290, 298–299, 307, 310–324, 342, 358, 366, 372–378, 382, 388, 390, 399–403, 406, 408, 425–427, 434, 444, 498, 500, 530
eyewall mesovortices, 322.407, 387, 425–434, 458
eyewalls: frontogenesis, 322, 336, 378, 399–13, 405–406; secondary, 299, 310, 323–324, 413–417, 425, 455–456; replacement cycles (ERCs), 324, 413–416, 422–423

F
Ferrel cell, 158
Ferrel, William, 158
filamentation (of potential vorticity patches), 443, 458, 467–468, 545
Findeisen, Walter, 17
Findlater Jet. See Somali Jet
first baroclinic mode, 207, 212, 237, 240, 247, 251, 253, 260, 284, 470
first law of thermodynamics, 23–24, 412
Fjørtoft Theorem, 272–273, 432, 447
flooding, 303, 325–327, 420, 494, 513, 534, 544, 572, 621–622, 629
forecasting, of tropical cyclone intensity, 421–422, 502, 517, 519, 528–529, 534, 573, 575, 601; of tropical cyclone motion, 473–475, 519
fractional area covered by convection, 39, 45, 87, 103–104, 107, 113, 125, 127, 128, 216, 517
freezing level, 51
friction velocity, 117, 382, 384, 508, 516
frictional dissipation. See dissipation
frontogenesis. See eyewalls, frontogenesis
Froude Number, 442
Fujiwhara effect, 467

G
general circulation models (GCMs)
genesis. See tropical cyclones, genesis of
genesis indices, 554–560, 569, 573–575, 580, 582–586, 594, 599–607, 610–618, 621, 628
genesis potential index. See genesis indices
geochemical proxies (for tropical cyclones), 590–593
geostrophic balance, 5–6, 84, 132, 133, 150–153, 178–179, 269, 303, 400, 406, 444–445, 476–477, 488, 491
gestation (of tropical cyclones), 547, 552–553, 564
global warming, effect on tropical cyclone activity, 199, 228, 599, 611–623, 628
gradient balance, 178, 339, 342, 355, 393–394, 447
gradient wind, 327, 339, 342–347, 357, 379–388, 393–412, 418–419, 438, 454–455, 594–595, 621
gravity waves. See waves, gravity
gray atmosphere approximation, 14–20
greenhouse effect, 8, 15, 22, 153, 172–173, 330, 612–624, 628
greenhouse gases, 8, 11–22, 33, 65, 74, 101, 102, 133, 330, 580, 608, 628
gross moist stability, 90–91, 99–100, 106, 155, 192, 218, 222, 370, 552, 564, 605
gust factor, 368–370

H
Hadley Circulation, 1, 129, 144–167, 171, 176, 179, 184, 198–199, 241, 264, 570, 601 (see also Hadley cell)
Hadley, George, 144
Halley, Edmond, 131–132, 136, 198
Hide, Raymond, 152
Hide's theorem, 152–153, 159, 178, 187
HITRAN, 20
Hovmöller plots, 229–230, 413, 415–416
Hovmöller, Ernest, 229
hub cloud, 322
hypercanes, 357

I
IBTrACS. See Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship
ice phase, 4, 12, 31, 34, 47–48, 57, 61, 63, 65, 71, 101, 109–112, 211, 241, 302, 332, 383, 413
incubation parameter. See ventilation parameter
inertial currents. See near-inertial currents
inertial instabiity, 1, 156, 178, 340–341, 364, 373, 434–435, 438, 458
intensification of tropical cyclones, 2, 309, 322, 376–378, 387, 390, 394–423, 458, 479, 482, 484, 488–489, 495, 530, 533–534, 548–549, 553, 564, 575, 580, 596, 601
interface, air-sea (See air-sea interface)
International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS). See Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship
intertropical convergence zone, 131, 136, 165, 283, 541
intraseasonal variability, 107, 183, 229–261, 284; effect on tropical cyclones, 581, 584
invertibility. See potential vorticity, invertibility
irreversible entropy production, 1, 46, 158, 330–331, 415, 468, 498, 502, 565; by fallout of precipitation, 34, 37, 42, 45, 54, 65, 111, 332, 363, 388, 415; by mixing across cloud boundaries, 46, 54, 332, 550

J
Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), 299, 584
Julian, Paul, 233

K
Kelvin waves, 207–210, 226–227, 232, 237–238, 241–247, 253, 255, 259–260, 285, 586
Kelvin-Helmholtz instability, 1, 348, 388, 522
Kelvin, Lord, 207
Kirchoff's law, 9, 11
Kolmogorov, Andrei, 26
Kona storms, 503

L
La Niña. See El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Lagrangian chaos, 461–462
land surface, effect on RCE state, 74, 83, 100, 130, 172–173; role in agukabams, 530–533, 535; role in diurnal cycle of convection; role in monsoons, 168, 173, 177
landphoon. See agukabam
lapse rates, 21, 43, 54–71, 88, 120, 150–151, 161–162, 178, 211, 217, 247, 253, 260, 267, 340–341, 362, 375–376, 388, 412, 491, 550.604–575; dry adiabatic, 24, 35–36, 172, 175, 267, 359.565; moist adiabatic, 35–36, 62–67, 71, 81, 85, 91, 105, 120, 150–151, 161–162, 211, 217, 253, 284, 340–341, 349, 550, 574; pseudo-moist adiabatic, 37
large-eddy simulations (LES), 378, 387, 489
latent heat flux, 65, 72, 260, 475, 533, 572
latent heat of fusion, 57, 61, 413
level of free convection (LFC), 60
level of neutral buoyancy (LNB), 60, 74
lifetime maximum intensity (LMI), 297–298, 388, 594–597, 606, 628
lifted condensation level (LCL), 58, 60, 74, 125
lightning, 53–54, 63, 96, 112, 276
liquid water density potential temperature, 123, 127
liquid water mixing ratio, 123

M
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), 1, 225, 232–237, 240–249, 253, 259, 260, 284, 556–587584–, 585, 601, 627
Madden, Roland, 233
mass flux. See convective mass flux
Matsuno modes, 208–210, 229, 231–237, 243, 249, 251, 255–256, 259, 284, 441, 458
Matsuno, Taro, 208
Maxwell relations, 23, 35, 151, 165, 178, 212, 343
medicanes, 2, 289, 293, 295, 305, 308–310, 327–328, 498–500, 503.574, 554
mesocyclones, 546–554, 575
mesoscale convective complexes, 544
mesoscale organization, 45–53, 128, 378
methane, 11, 13–14, 20, 611
microphysics, 33–34, 40, 241, 578; effect on tropospheric water vapor profiles, 40–41, 67–68
Mie scattering, 8
mixed Rossby-gravity waves, 209, 232, 237–239, 243, 255, 259–260, 284, 443, 586
MJO. See Madden-Julian Oscillation
moats, 310, 414
moist adiabatic adjustment. See convective adjustment, moist
moist static energy profile, 68.107, 552
moisture, mid-tropospheric, 260, 476, 599–600, 627
moisture adjustment time scale, 70–71
moisture advection, horizontal, 73, 84, 87, 90, 96, 99, 153–154, 163, 167, 173, 178–179, 182, 244, 365, 368, 388, 396–397, 417, 422, 479, 605; vertical, 72–73, 99, 244, 255, 368 (See also gross moist stability)
Monin-Obukhov length, See Obukhov length
Monin-Obukhov similarity theory, 118, 121, 505, 560, 562
monochromatic flux density, 8–9
monochromatic radiant intensity, 9–10
monsoon depressions, 185–189, 533
monsoons, 136, 138, 168–189, 198–199, 264, 267, 291, 294, 533, 592, 601–602, 609
mountains, role in monsoons, 173, 182
movement (of tropical cyclones), 461–475, 490

N
National Hurricane Center. see NOAA National Hurricane Center
Navier-Stokes equations, 379, 412
near-inertial currents, 2, 338, 505, 519–530, 533–535, 587, 624
Newtonian relaxation, 10, 83
nitrous oxide, 11, 13, 14, 20
NOAA, National Hurricane Center, 290, 376, 474, 530, 539, 584
nonbaroclinic reintensification (of tropical cyclones over land), 530–533 (See also agukabams)
nondevelopment (of tropical cyclones), 539–544
nonprecipitating clouds. See convection, shallow; cumulus,trade

O
Obukhov length, 117–118, 121, 336, 505
ocean, currents, 1–3, 114, 168, 226, 324–325, 333, 339, 378, 485, 586, 587, 625; near-inertial (See near-inertial currents); mixed layer, 83, 94, 167, 193–198, 338, 413, 520–522, 527–529, 534, 571–572, 596, 598, 624, 629; mixing; surface temperature (See sea surface temperature); surface waves, 2, 120, 324–325, 338, 486, 505–509, 517, 533–535, 587
ocean heat transport, 84, 112, 198, 330, 571–572, 580, 596–601, 624–626; effect on tropical cyclone potential intensity, 598–600
optical depth, 9–10, 14, 18–21, 30, 173, 610
outer radius (of tropical cyclones), 352–355, 361, 363, 365–372, 383, 391, 398, 405, 416–422, 451, 504, 569
outer wind field (of tropical cyclones), 361–365, 404, 570
outflow. See tropical cyclone, outflow: jets; tropical cyclone
outflow temperature, 335, 339, 346–358, 367, 389, 395, 397, 399, 402–403, 408, 482, 516, 532, 576
overturning circulations. See thermally direct overturning circulations
overwash deposits, 588, 627
ozone, 11, 13, 20–21, 357

P
paleotempestology, 586–594, 597
parameterization, of cloud microphysics; of cloud-radiation interaction, 252, 257–258; of convection, 240, 598, 618; of stratiform clouds; of turbulence, 348–349, 387, 422; of ventilation, 480, 504, 573
Planck constant, 9
Planck's law, 9, 12–13, 15
plane-parallel approximation, 10, 14–17, 20
Poincare waves, 209–210, 255, 259
point potential vortices, 463–468, 476–478, 491–493
polar lows, 2, 289–295, 305–310, 327–328, 498, 500, 503, 515, 544, 554
potential intensity (of tropical cyclones), 330–339
potential temperature (definition), 27
potential vorticity, (definition), 158; saturation (SPV), 6, 339, 342, 394, 455, 462, 468, 473, 594; invertibility, 5, 6, 388, 394; pseudo, 179, 269–272, 342, 394, 444–447, 463, 487, 491
power dissipation index (PDI), 554, 582–583, 599
Prandtl convection problem, 26–29, 42, 116, 117
Prandtl, Ludwig, 26
precipitation efficiency, 41, 67–68, 75, 89–93, 96, 195–197, 216–217, 256, 369, 488, 608, 622, 624, 629; sensitivity of tropospheric humidity to, 40–41, 67–68.105–106, 91–93
PREDICT field campaign, 544
predictability (of tropical cyclones), 422, 461, 484–485, 534
pressure broadening, 11
Prigogene, Ilya, 330
principal band, 439
pseudo entropy, 37
pseudo-potential vorticity. See potential voticity, pseudo

Q
quasi-equilibrium: boundary layer (See boundary layer quasi-quilibrium)
quasi-geostrophy, 158, 179, 269, 303, 342, 393–394, 406, 444–448, 463, 466–468, 476–477, 487–488, 491–493

R
radar, see airborne Doppler radar
radiant intensity. See monochromatic radiant intensity
radiation, 7–22; blackbody, 8–15; budget, 7–8
radiative equilibrium, 14–22, 24–25, 29–33, 41, 43, 75, 598, 600, 601
radiative subsidence, 41, 122, 362–365, 370, 372, 376, 383, 417, 451
radiative subsidence velocity, 122, 363, 365, 370, 372, 376, 383, 451
radiative-convective equilibrium, 1, 2, 6, 29–42, 61, 65–84, 131, 329, 448, 470, 488, 547–548, 596; behavior of perturbations to, 77–97; dry, 29–33; moist, 33–41, 65–107
radiative-convective instability, 97–107
radiative-slantwise-convective equilibrium, 162, 175
radio occultation, 134
radiosonde, 132–133, 237, 261, 264, 545
radius of maximum winds (RMW), 290, 299–300, 315, 336, 352–361, 363, 365, 370, 377, 382, 386, 391, 397–405, 412, 415–416, 419–420, 442, 450, 487, 570
radius of vanishing winds (RVW), 290, 299, 405
rainbands, 310, 311, 312, 323–324, 481, 530; spiral, 2, 310, 311, 323–324, 439–451, 498
rapid intensification of tropical cyclones. See tropical cyclones, intensification
rawinsondes, 21, 56–57, 61, 72, 233, 237–240, 252–253, 263, 473, 539, 605
Rayleigh necessary condition for instability, 431–433, 438, 444, 446–447, 458–459
Rayleigh scattering, 8, 13
Rayleigh shear problem, 427–433, 446–447
Rayleigh-Benard convection, 560–562
realignment. See axisymmeterization of tropical cyclones
reevaporation. See evaporation
reflection. See radiative transfer
Relámpago del Catatumbo, 276
relaxation time scales, 30, 79, 82–83, 88, 91, 95–96, 112, 172
Reynolds Number, 25–26, 380
Rhines scale, 571
Riccati equation, 363–364
Richardson number, 122, 347–350, 386, 522; criticality, 122, 347–350.391–392, 365, 370, 397, 412, 420, 522–523, 526, 528
roll structures in tropical cyclone boundary layers, 387, 435–438, 441
Rossby wave breaking, 128, 159, 303, 443, 495
Rossby waves, 1, 136, 158, 159, 189, 267, 272–278, 303, 333, 458, 470, 472, 485–486, 491–492, 495, 498, 502, 519, 554; equatorially trapped, 209, 210, 214, 226–227, 232, 237–243, 249, 259–260; vortex, 415–434, 437, 438, 443–451, 458–459, 468, 470, 478–480, 502–503
roughness length, mechanical, 117–119, 505, 508–509; thermal, 120

S
Saffir-Simpson scale, 290, 591
Saharan air, 141, 544
SAM. See System for Atmospheric Modeling
saturation deficit, 105, 555–556, 576, 580, 599–600, 612, 615–616
saturation entropy, 54–55, 147–148, 153–159, 165, 176, 211–212, 216, 218, 221–224, 252, 255, 258, 285, 331, 343, 350–356, 394–397, 403–408, 556, 599
saturation moist static energy, 67, 68, 81, 85, 89–92, 154, 192, 219, 329, 367–368, 371, 549, 576, 599
saturation potential vorticity. See potential vorticity, saturation
scattering. See radiative transfer
scattering source function, 8
scatterometer, 133, 261–262, 300–301
sea spray. See spray
sea surface temperature (SST), 31–32, 68, 75, 93–94, 97, 102, 103, 125, 138–139, 166–167, 179–182, 189–191, 198, 201–204, 211, 219–227, 236, 240–241, 252, 279, 306, 308, 330, 338, 339, 346, 356–357, 416, 421, 448, 495, 505, 515–516, 523–529, 547–549, 555–556, 559, 563–572, 576, 580–586, 589, 598–629
seasonal cycle, 165, 203, 226, 264, 389, 557, 572, 596. (See also annual cycle)
secondary eyewalls. See concentric eyewalls
self-aggregation of deep convection, 72, 97–107, 110, 256, 279, 560, 563–565
semi-geostrophy, 487
sensible heat flux, 31, 119, 267, 330
shallow-water equations, 6, 189, 206, 212, 227, 251, 284, 441–443, 470, 509, 534
shear, effect on tropical cyclone intensity, 475–485; effect on tropical cyclone motion, 462–468; effect on tropical cyclone structure, 475–485; effects on tropical cyclone genesis, 533–535, 545, 549, 555–556, 559, 571–572, 575–580
single-column model, 20, 68–83, 93–94, 111, 139, 172–177, 359, 598–601, 617
skew-T diagram, 38, 55, 56, 62, 390
slab boundary layers. See boundary layers, slab
slab ocean, 79, 112–114, 165–167, 172, 570, 598, 629
slantwise convection, 339–344, 369, 394, 618
slantwise convective neutrality, 339–342, 388, 473
slantwise neutral vortices, 339–342
soils, role in agukabams, 309–310, 417, 505, 530–533, 534, 535; role in CAPE generation, 52, 63–64; role in monsoons, 172, 175, 177, 267
solar radiation. See radiation; shortwave
Somali Jet, 168, 183–184
soundings, 21–22, 58, 62–64, 72, 77, 114, 134, 307, 390, 564 (See also radiosondes, rawinsondes)
South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), 108, 583
Southern Oscillation. See El Niño-Southern Oscillation
spin-up. See tropical cyclones, intensification
spiral rainbands. See rainbands, spiral
spray, 47, 311, 315, 331, 337, 378, 388, 412, 505, 508, 509, 513–519, 533–536, 607
squall lines, 1, 42, 49–51, 107–111, 323, 439–441, 458
state estimation, 135
static stability, 66–67, 88–89, 95–96, 194, 216, 269, 370, 381, 412, 441, 448, 488–489
statistical equilibrium, 5–6, 26, 29, 74, 77, 97, 112, 117, 516–517, 565–566, 569–570
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 15, 19
storm surges, 325, 327, 378, 505, 509–513, 534, 586–588, 621
storm tides, 325
stratiform clouds, 41, 45, 65, 71, 74, 260, 311, 317, 439, 440, 546–547, 553; rain from, 260, 311, 317, 439, 440, 546–547, 553
stratocumuli, 48, 94, 115, 123–130, 138, .312, 322, 366, 390, 624
stratosphere, effect on equatorial modes, 259
subcloud layer, 39, 45, 48, 49, 58, 61–62, 65–77, 85–91, 95, 108, 111–112, 125–128, 154–156, 160–162, 172, 175, 211–219, 252, 344, 352, 574
subsidence, 5, 41, 48, 76, 85–87, 121–127, 155, 179, 194, 216, 315, 321–322, 341, 358, 362–372, 376, 415–417, 451, 1162
subtropical. See subtropics
subtropical cyclones, 186, 503, 505–496
sulfate aerosols, See aerosols
super-gradient winds. See agradient winds in tropical cyclones
superposition principle, 487–488, 494, 502, 545
surface energy balance, 16, 74, 79
surface fluxes. See enthalpy flux, latent heat flux, sensible heat flux
surface layer, 121, 124–128, 219, 337, 383
surface roughness. See roughness length
surface waves. See ocean,surface waves
surface wind speed. See also wind-induced surface heat exchange (WISHE): effect on boundary layer enthalpy deficit, 68; effect on potential intensity, 572, 597–599, 628; effect on self-aggregation of convection; effect on surface temperature, 43
surges. See storm surges
Sverdrup balance, 227
Sverdrup, Harold, 227
System for Atmospheric Modeling (SAM), 97, 240–260, 563–564

T
TC-world numerical experiments, 559–572, 574, 575, 594
TCS08 field campaign, 544
tempestites, 586–587
TEXMEX field campaign, 546–547
thermocline, 189–191, 196, 202, 204, 208, 226–227, 505, 625–626
thermodynamic disequilibrium, 17–19, 31, 75, 305–306, 329–332, 338, 354, 359, 448, 563, 569, 596, 599–601, 608
thermodynamic equilibrium, 9, 25, 33, 34, 42, 315, 330, 363, 599
Thomson, William, 207
THORPEX field campaign, 544
Tibetan High, 173, 179, 184
TOGA COARE field campaign, 21, 72–75, 252–253
tornadoes, 64, 111, 323, 327, 425–427, 435
trade cumuli. See cumulus, trade
trade inversion, 127–128
trade winds, 125–127, 131–132, 136–138, 229–230, 261, 286
triggering disturbances (in tropical cyclone genesis), 486, 489, 495, 545, 548–575, 580
tropical cyclones and climate change, 581–624
tropical depression, 290–293, 544, 553, 573
Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM), 134, 138, 140, 142, 186–187, 302, 309, 524, 530
tropical storms, 2, 284, 290–294, 299, 309–313, 326, 420, 473–479, 490, 530–534, 539–541, 553
tropical transition, 495, 500
tropical upper-tropospheric troughs (TUTTs), 545
tropics, definition, 5
turbulence kinetic energy, 28, 35, 121, 123, 330, 624
turbulent diffusion. See turbulent fluxes
turbulent dissipation. See dissipation
turbulent fluxes, 7, 72, 76, 89, 99, 330, 336–337, 378, 380–384, 387, 398, 422; radial, 336–337, 422
typhoons, 290, 299, 300, 301, 312, 318, 320, 324, 387, 414, 435, 437, 544, 593

U
ultraviolet radiation, 8, 11–13, 19

V
ventilation (of tropical cyclone cores), 479–484, 495, 502–504, 533, 544, 549–550, 573–580, 599, 605
ventilation parameter, 481–484, 495, 549, 550, 575–580
volcanoes, effect of on tropical cyclone activity, 607–611
von Kármán constant, 117, 384
vortex alignment, 2, 463, 468, 478–480
vortex Rossby waves. See Rossby waves, vortex
vorticity

W
Walker circulation, 86, 129, 189–198, 201, 211, 225–226, 601
Walker, Gilbert, 189, 201
water vapor, absorption of solar radiation by, 1, 7, 11, 13, 101, 598; as a greenhouse gas, 1, 8, 11–14, 31, 33, 65, 68, 71, 100, 101, 104, 106, 111, 173, 192, 196, 256, 596, 624
waterspouts, 323
waves, African easterly (See African easterly waves); equatorially trapped, 206–211, 229–260; gravity, 438, 441–443, 486, 552, 575; ocean surface (See ocean,surface waves); radiation of, 259, 441, 486, 575
WAVEWATCH, 507
weak temperature gradient approximation (WTG), 84–90, 94–95, 100, 103–105, 112, 130, 136, 139, 153, 192, 195, 211, 580–581, 598–601
Weather Research and Forecast Model (WRF), 547–549, 559, 564
Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process, 47
Wegener, Alfred, 47
wind shear. See shear. See shear
wind-induced surface heat exchange (WISHE), role in ENSO; role in equatorial disturbances, 222–226, 246–249, 255–260; role in monsoons, 166–167, 183–185, 188; role in tropical cyclones, 279, 284, 553, 574
WISHE. See wind-induced surface heat exchange

Y
Yanai waves. See mixed Rossby-gravity waves
Yanai, Michio, 209